Theories+of+Development

=**Theories of Development**=


 * 1. Describe Freud's structural and psychosexual theory.**

In Freud's structural theory personality is made up of three distinct structures: __Id__ which is present at birth and consists of person’s life and death instincts. Operates on basis of pleasure principle and seeks immediate gratification of instinctual drives/needs in order to avoid tension. __Ego__ which develops at 6 months of age in response to id’s inability to gratify all needs. Operates on basis of reality and defers gratification of id’s instincts until appropriate or realistic. Involves rational thinking and planning and whose main job is to mediate the conflicting demands between id and reality. __Superego__ which develops between the ages of 4-5 years of age and represents an internalization of society’s standards In contrast to ego, which postpones gratification of id’s instincts, superego attempts to permanently block all of id’s socially unacceptable drives, acting as a conscience.

Freuds psychosexual theory proposes that a person’s personality is formed during childhood as the result of certain experiences that occur during 5 psychosexual stages of development:
 * **Stage** || **Development** || **Fixation** ||
 * Oral Stage 0–1 || Mouth is the focus of sensation/stimulation and weaning is the source of conflict || dependence, passivity, gullibility, and orally focused habits ||
 * Anal Stage 1-3 || control of bodily wastes and conflicts involve toilet training || stinginess, obsessive behavior, or cruelty ||
 * Phallic Stage 3-6 || Sexual energy centered in the genitals, primary task is to resolve Oedipal conflict, Successful outcome results in identification with same sex parent and development of superego || sexual exploitation of others ||
 * Latency Stage 6-12 || Libidinal energy is diffuse rather than on specific area in body || Goal is to develop social skills ||
 * Genital Stage 12+ || Libido is again centered on genitals || Successful outcome occurs when sexual desire is blended with affection to produce mature sexual relationships ||


 * 2. Describe the theory of Erik Erikson.**

Erikson had a theory very similar to freud but inclueded three stages following adolescense during which Erikson believed that development continued, as well as a more of a social component.


 * 3. Explain the eight stages of the life cycle according to Erikson.**


 * **Age** || **Developmental Task** || Summary ||
 * 0-1 || Trust vs. Distrust || Social mistrust demonstrated via ease of feeding, depth of sleep, bowel relaxation. Trust in primary caretaker. ||
 * 2-3 || Autonomy vs. Doubt || Biologically includes learning to walk, feed self, talk. Develop ability to hold and let go, depends on support from caretaker to develop autonomy. ||
 * 4-5 || Initiative vs. Guilt || Favorable relationships with family members result in ability to set goals and devise and carryout plans without infringing on the rights of others. Some oedipal struggle and sibling rivalry seen. ||
 * 6-11 || Industry vs. Inferiority || New found skills lead to productivity and child takes pride in accomplishments. Danger of sense of inadequacy and inferiority if child status is lower among peers. ||
 * 12-18 || Identity vs. Role Confusion || Struggle to develop ego identity. Preoccupation with appearance, hero worship, ideology and group identity develops with peers as primary influence. Danger of role confusion, doubts about sexual and vocational identity. Psychosocial moratorium, a stage between morality learned by the child and the ethics to be developed by the adult ||
 * Young Adulthood || Intimacy vs. Isolationlation || The tasks at this stage are to love and to work. Development of close intimate relationships, or without a friend or significant other a person can become self absorbed isolative. ||
 * Adulthood || Generativity vs. Stagnation || Generativity concerns a person having or raising children, improving society. Inability to transcend the lack of creativity is dangerous because people are unable to accept that death is inevitable and an integral part of life. ||
 * Maturity || Ego-integrity vs. Despair || This stage is described as a conflict between the sense of satisfaction that a person feels in reflecting on a life productively lived and despair. Despair results from the sense that life has had little purpose or meaning and that time is too short to make a difference. Coming to terms with one’s own mortality. ||


 * 4. Describe the theory of Jean Piaget.**

Piaget’s theory conceives of intellectual development as occurring in four distinct periods of stages. Intellectual development is continuous, but the intellectual operations in the different periods are distinctly different. Children progress through the four periods in the same order, but at very different rates. The stages do not end abruptly but tend to trail off. A child may be in two different stages in different areas. Both environment and genetics play a role in how each stage is negotiated.


 * 5. Describe intellectual development according to Piaget.**


 * **Age** || **Stage** || Summary ||
 * 0-2 || Sensorimotor || Child learns about his or her relationship to various objects. Includes learning a variety of fundamental movements and perceptual activities. Object permanence which begins at 8 months, is the critical achievement for this period. It defines the child’s ability to understand that objects continue to exist even when they can’t see them. Infants learn to differentiate themselves from the world and are able to maintain a mental image of an object, even when it is not visible. ||
 * 2-7 || Preoperational || Piaget divided this stage into the preoperational phase and the intuitive phase. In the preoperational phase, children use language and try to make sense of the world but have a much less sophisticated mode of thought than adults. In the intuitive phase, the child slowly moves away from drawing conclusions based solely on concrete experiences with objects. Children develop the ability to classify objects on the basis of different criteria, learn to count and use the concept of numbers. Hallmarks of the intuitive stage are egocentrism, magical thinking, animism, and lack of understanding of reversibility and conservation concepts.||
 * 7-12 || Concrete Operational || In this stage a person can do more complicated mental operations but only with real (concrete) objects, events or situations. They can now engage in taking another person’s perspective. They can serialize, order, and group things into classes based on common attributes. They also understand the concept of reversibility in that one thing can turn into another and then back again. Logical reasons are now understood. Most current estimates are that from 30 to 60 percent of adults are in the concrete operational stage. ||
 * 12+ || Formal Operational || A formal operational thinker can do abstract thinking and starts to enjoy abstract thought. Can formulate hypotheses without actually manipulating concrete objects, and when more adept can test the hypotheses mentally and systematically. Can generalize from one kind of real object to another and to an abstract notion. Person is capable of metacognition, that is, thinking about thinking. ||


 * 6. Describe the theory of Margaret Mahler.**

Mahler focused primarily on early childhood developmet, which occurs in three main phases: Normal Autistic Phase, Normal Symbiotic Phase, and the Separation-Individuation Phase (4 subphases: Differentiation, Practicing, Rapprochement, Object Constancy)


 * **Age** || **Stage** || Summary ||
 * Normal Autistic Phase||0-2 months||State of half-asleep, half-awake. Major task of phase is to achieve homeostatic equilibrium with the environment||
 * Normal Symbiotic Phase||2-5 months||Dim awareness of caretaker, but infant still functions as if he and caretaker are in state of undifferentiation or fusion. Social smile characteristic||
 * Separation-Individuation Phase|| || ||
 * //Differentiation//||5-10 months||Process of hatching from autistic shell, developing more, alert sensorium that reflects cognitive and neurological maturation. Beginning of comparative scanning, i.e., comparing what is and what is not mother. Characteristic anxiety:  stranger anxiety, which involves, curiosity and fear.||
 * //Practicing//||10-18 months||Beginning of this marked by upright locomotion, child has new perspective and also mood of elation. Mother used as home base with separation anxiety.||
 * //Rapprochement//||18-24 months||Infant now a toddler, more aware of physical separateness, which dampens mood of elation. Child tries to bridge gap between himself and mother, concretely seen as bringing objects to mother. Mother's efforts to help toddler often not perceived as helpful; temper tantrums typical.||
 * //Object Constancy Phase//||24 months-5 years||Child better able to cope with mother's absence and engage substitutes. Child can begin to feel comfortable with mother's absences by knowing she will return. Gradual internalization of image of mother as reliable and stable. Through increasing verbal skills and better sense of time, child can tolerate delay and endure separations.||

See above
 * 7. Differentiate among the subphases described in Mahler's theory.**


 * 8. Describe the theory of moral development according to Lawrence Kohlberg.**

Kohlberg's theory specifies six stages of moral development, arranged in three levels


 * Level I||Moral values reside in external or in bad acts. The child is responsive to rules and evaluative labels, but views them in terms of pleasant or unpleasant consequences of actions, or in terms of the physical power of those who impose the rules||
 * Stage 1||Morality is external and the focus for the child is on the rules and the consequences for breaking them.||
 * Stage 2||Right action based on satisfying the self's needs and occasionally others.||
 * Level II||Moral values reside in performing the right role, in maintaining the conventional order and expectancies of others as a value in its own right. This stage corresponds to the age of concrete operations in the cognitive realm.||
 * Stage 3||Orientation to approval, to pleasing and helping others.||
 * Stage 4||Orientation to "doing duty" and to showing respect for authority and maintaining the given social order for its own sake. Concern is based on society as a whole.||
 * Level III||Morality is defined in terms of conformity to shared standards, rights, or duties apart from supporting authority. The standards conformed to are internal, and action-decisions are based on inner processes of thought and judgment concerning right and wrong.||
 * Stage 5||Norms of right and wrong are defined in terms of laws or institutionalized rules which seem to have a rational basis. The morally right action is the one that is consistent with democratically determined laws (which can be changed if they interfere with basic rights)||
 * Stage 6||Orientation not only toward existing social rules, but also toward the conscience as well as a directing agent, mutual trust and respect, and principles of moral choice involving logical universalities and consistency. Right and wrong determined on the basis of broad, self-chosen universally-applicable ethical principles.||

see above
 * 9. Summarize the six stages of moral development according to Kohlberg.**